The English Language is one which has continuously changed over about 1 500 years from the time of the Anglo-Saxon invaders. At present, there are about 350 million people who speak English as their first language and another 500 million who use it as a second or other language. It is the common language for many international activities including aviation, shipping, communications, science and much business. There are various dialectical differences among the countries who have English as a first language. There are also pidgin English versions in many places, e.g. New Guinea.

People of today would not be able to read or understand the earliest forms of English. Perhaps not till the 14^th century did it start to look like the language of the present and it was really only in the 16-17^th centuries that it started to take its present form. It could also be described as a composite language for it has drawn expressions, words and more from the many languages it has come into contact with, from Europe to Asia and the South Seas.

This page looks at the development of English. It covers the major periods of change and development, looks at present-day dialects such as Strine, Cockney and other, slang and other language forms.

The Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias pages may prove useful in finding word origins and further historical information.

The English Language

Dialects & Languages based on English

Australian English

• Aussie English for the Beginner
  Flash and HTML formats. ‘Australian English has developed a rich and distinct vocabulary that some would say reflects our dry wit and occasional wisdom. Explore origins and meanings of our common Australian words and idioms, test your knowledge of Australian English’. National Museum of Australia. You can access the Aussie English Guide directly via this link.
• Aussie Slang
  An extensive, alphabetical listing of slang terms on this page.
• AusTalk : An audio-visual corpus of Australian English
  ‘AusTalk will be a large state-of-the-art database of spoken Australian English from all around the country. Starting in June 2011, a thousand adults of all ages from 15 different locations in all states & territories are being recorded, representing the regional and social diversity and linguistic variation of Australian English, including Australian Aboriginal English’.
• Australian English
  Origins, influences, phonology, variation, vocabulary, spelling and grammar, references, links to other sites. From Wikipedia.
• Australian National Corpus [AusNC]
  ‘A discovery service that collates and provides access to assorted examples of Australian English text [published and unpublished], transcriptions, audio and audio-visual materials’.
• Australian National Dictionary Online
  ‘The Australian National Dictionary is a comprehensive, historically-based record of Australian English. It is a dictionary of Australianisms - those words and meanings which have originated in Australia, which have greater currency here than elsewhere, or which have a special significance in Australian history’. You might also try the For schools page which has A selection of exercises using dictionaries for use in the classroom and A guide to making your own dictionary.
• Australian Slang
  ‘A dictionary containing descriptions of Australian Slang words for Bludger’s to help them not appear as if they are Not the Full Quid in case they go walkabout down under’. Has a good introductory section as well.
• Australian Slang [Babylon]
  ‘Explanation in English of some specific Australian words and expressions’. Alphabetic groupings. Well presented !
  These sites for Australian Slang [2], a Dictionary of Australian Slang and A Very Short Dictionary of Australian Slang may also be of use.
• Australian Voices
  From the Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University. Play soundbites, ask Specific Questions, use the FAQs, find out if people speak differently in different parts of Australia, Aboriginal English, history & accent change, more.
• Australia Word Map
  ‘Word Map is mapping Australian regionalisms - words, phrases, expressions used by particular language groups. Add your regionalism or search to see what others have contributed’. Australian Broadcasting Commission.
• Speaking Our Language
  The Story of Australian English. Lecture material related to the book of the same name. Access MP3 audio or FLV video.
• Strine …
  The World’s Most Advanced Dialect. Traces the development of Strine and compares it to other versions of English.

Other Forms

• The Dialectizer
  Have fun with language. Use online software to translate writing into dialects from Cockney to Elmer Fudd.
• Do You Speak American ?
  An odyssey around the US. PBS program.
• English Around the World
  Audio files of English dialects from around the world. We even have a dialect !
• Globish
  Pronounced Globe-ish. In French, but there are English based articles listed in the l/h column. The idea is to have a simple, common English usage that will help those whose first language is other than English, use it as a common verbal, meeting point.
• Language Varieties [English]
  Dialects of English from around the world, including Australian Aboriginal.
• The Speech Accent Archive
  ‘Uniformly presents a large set of speech samples from a variety of language backgrounds. Native and non-native speakers of English read the same paragraph and are carefully transcribed. The archive is used by people who wish to compare and analyze the accents of different English speakers’.
• SCOTS Project
  Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech. ‘Provides a large electronic corpus of both written and spoken texts for the languages of Scotland. It is hoped that SCOTS will allow those interested in Scotland’s linguistic diversity, to investigate the languages of Scotland in new ways’.
• Slang Dictionary Links
  Includes links to those covering the UK, US, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, as well as a collection of others, some of which may need monitoring before use with younger people.
• Surfing for Slang
  The World’s Cool Slang Link Bank. ‘Caution ! Some of the websites may contain strong and explicit language, so please don’t proceed if you are easily offended’. American to Scandinavian slang examples. A variety of countries from around the world.
• United Kingdom English
  Primarily developed for Americans. Can be used to understand UK expressions and usage while gathering ideas about the US format.

General Information

• Constructed Human Languages
  Information on, and links to, constructed languages listed under headings - fictional, artistic, historical.
• English Language Reference
  ‘An English language reference designed for ESL learners and teachers, but of interest to all English lovers. This section includes meanings, interpretations, examples, notes and quizzes, with answers provided’. Includes sayings, idioms and slang among other sections.
• Ethnologue, Web Version
  Database of almost 7 000 languages, telling where used, those using it, region, classification. Information on language families, codes.
• Evolution of Alphabets
  Where alphabets came from, how they developed differences. Works with many alphabets and their origins.
• Good English, Bad English
  Links to sites that discuss English including multiple linguistic aspects.
• Omniglot - a Guide to Writing Systems
  Information on writing systems including what a writing system is, alphabetic writing systems, syllabic, logographic, alternative writing systems. A-Z index.
• Where Do Languages Come From ?
  The development of languages, how they are studied, how they relate to each other.
• World Wide Words
  ‘1 850+ pieces on language in six sections’. Expressions, origins, language usage in various situations, topical words, turns of phrase, more. International English from a British viewpoint.
  Highly Recommended !

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History of English

• Ages of English Timeline
  ‘From a West Saxon dialect to a global phenomenon, runes to rap, the development of English follows a fascinating trail. Ever wondered how Beowulf sounded ? Why pickleherring was one of Johnson’s choice insults ? Explore the ten ages of English in this interactive timeline’.
• A Brief History of the English Language
  Text presentation. Looks at several periods in the development of the English language.
• A Brief History of the English Language [YouTube Video]
  10 minute video on the topic. Links to related videos are listed on the right.
• Chronology of Events in the History of English
  Annotated dates providing major changes.
• Early English Books Online
  ‘From the first book published in English through the age of Spenser and Shakespeare’.
• E. L. Easton
  As part of their Etymology site, they provide links to specific sites and articles on the History of English, as well as links to sites about languages which have had an influence on the English language.
• English History and Its Language Development
  Multiple sections from Indo-European Words, then an introduction and 14 other sections. Select those to do with language.
• English Language History
  Brief summary of major influences, periods in the development of the English language.
• English Language History [2]
  Summary, where spoken, periods in English language development, modern influences and usage.
• English Language History Online Resources
  Briefly annotated links grouped under a series of headings covering periods and other topics.
• English Through The Ages
  How English has changed over time. What it was like using Old or Middle English.
• Exploring the English Language
  UK Open University presentation. 15th Century to the 19th century. 5 sections.
• Historical Thesaurus of English
  ‘The completed database will contain around 650 000 word meanings, representing the English vocabulary from Old English [c700 A.D.] to the present, arranged according to their meanings and dates of use’.
• History of English
  Proto-English, Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, Historic English Text samples, references, bibliography, links. From Wikipedia. A related site on the English Language also contains historical information.
• History of English
  Five Events that Shaped the History of English. Brief presentations covering these from Oxford Dictionaries.
• History of the English Language
  ‘Links to on-line, worldwide resources for the study of the English language and its history As well, my students are contributing to an anthology of historical texts representing different genres of English, and an encyclopaedia on the cultural history of English’. He also has a Links Page leading to further information.
• History of the English Language [2]
  Links on the history of English language from prehistoric times to today. These are part of a course descriptor. Fascinating.
• History of the English Language [3]
  A short history of the origins and development of English. Brief text presentation with accompanying chronology.
• Language Timeline
  ‘The English language is a vast flea market of words, handed down, borrowed or created over more than 2 000 years. Our language is not purely English at all - it is a ragbag of diverse words that have come to our island from all around the world. View the chart to get an overview of some of the many chapters in the history of the English language’. In periods from 500BC to the present. Each includes listings of words added to the language during that time. The British Library. Part of the larger Changing Language site.
• Studying The History of English
  ‘You can access the various sections of this website in any of three ways’. History, timelines, varieties, links, more.
• The Brain Rummager Too
  The Story of the English Language. ‘A short history of the English language. If you are visiting for the first time, I recommend that you work through the Menu items in numerical order. There are brief summaries of important aspects of the history of English. There are also short extracts from old books. You’ll find comparisons between different versions of English. Some of the pages have questions and items for you to think about. If the questions have straightforward answers, you can easily find them lower on the page’.
• World Wide Words
  Development and use of English. History, evolution, unusual aspects of the language.

Language Periods

Old English

• Essentials of Old English
  Glasgow University. Introduction, basic and advanced grammar, reading list, texts, technical help.
• Modern English to Old English Vocabulary
  Extensive collection, alphabetically presented. From abandon - anforlætan; forlætan; ofgiefan to zealously - georne; geornlice.
• OEME
  ‘Find both Old to Modern and Modern to Old English Dictionaries. Finished Dictionaries are coloured green/blue’. Links to Grammar and to Two eBooks in Old English, for you to read.
• Old English [Calgary University]
  ‘Courses in Old English language and Old English literature constructed by Murray McGillivray’.
• Old English, English Dictionary
  Old English expressions from æ to yrre. Websters Online Dictionaries.
• Old English [University of Virginia]
  ‘Resources for students of Old English at the University of Virginia and elsewhere, including texts, exercises, information about Introduction to Old English, the new textbook by the creator of this web site [with a link to the Free online version], links to a selection of online resources’.
• Old English Pages
  ‘Old English. Georgetown University’.
• Old English Translator
  ‘Old English, sometimes known as Anglo Saxon, is a precursor of the Modern English language. Spoken between the 5th and 12th century in areas of what is now England and Southern Scotland. ’. Bi-directional options.
• The Electronic Introduction to Old English
  16 chapters, several appendices.
• Thesaurus of Old English
  Find words and meanings. There are also links to Old English, other sources.

Middle English

• A Concise Dictionary of Middle English
  Downloadable ebook in several formats. Project Gutenberg.
• A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English
  ‘LAEME aims to present information about the variation in space and time of linguistic forms found in early Middle English texts. We take early Middle English to cover the period ca. 1150-1325. LAEME is a phased publication and not all its facilities are yet complete’.
• History of English Audio
  RealAudio required. Listen to readings of material from Middle English. Also has Old English readings.
• Middle English Compendium
  ‘Designed to offer easy access to and interconnectivity between three major Middle English electronic resources: an electronic version of the Middle English Dictionary, a HyperBibliography of Middle English prose and verse, based on the MED bibliographies, and a Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse, as well as links to an associated network of electronic resources’.
• Middle English Links
  Briefly annotated links to Middle English materials on the web. Select Middle English from the topics.
• TEAMS Middle English Texts
  ‘The goal of the TEAMS Middle English text series is to make available to teachers and students texts which occupy an important place in the literary and cultural canon but which have not been readily available in student editions’.
• The English Language in the Fourteenth Century
  Part of a site on Chaucer. part covers English dialects of the period.

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